Typically, operators of well-run landfills for non-hazardous waste meet predefined specifications by applying techniques to:
During landfill operations a scale or weighbridge
may weigh waste-collection vehicles on arrival and personnel may
inspect loads for wastes that do not accord with the landfill's
waste-acceptance criteria. Afterward, the waste-collection vehicles use
the existing road network on their way to the tipping face or working
front, where they unload their contents. After loads are deposited, compactors or bulldozers can spread and compact the waste
on the working face. Before leaving the landfill boundaries, the waste
collection vehicles may pass through a wheel-cleaning facility. If
necessary, they return to the weighbridge for re-weighing without their
load. The weighing process can assemble statistics on the daily incoming
waste-tonnage, which databases can retain for record keeping. In
addition to trucks, some landfills may have equipment to handle railroad
containers. The use of "rail-haul" permits landfills to be located at
more remote sites, without the problems associated with many truck
trips.
Typically, in the working face, the compacted waste is covered with
soil or alternative materials daily. Alternative waste-cover materials
include chipped wood or other "green waste",[2]
several sprayed-on foam products, chemically "fixed" bio-solids, and
temporary blankets. Blankets can be lifted into place at night and then
removed the following day prior to waste placement. The space that is
occupied daily by the compacted waste and the cover material is called a
daily cell. Waste compaction is critical to extending the life of the
landfill. Factors such as waste compressibility, waste-layer thickness
and the number of passes of the compactor over the waste affect the
waste densities.
Landfills
are often the most cost-efficient way to dispose of waste, especially
in countries like the United States with large open spaces. While resource recovery and incineration
both require extensive investments in infrastructure, and material
recovery also requires extensive manpower to maintain, landfills have
fewer fixed—or ongoing—costs, allowing them to compete favorably. In
addition, landfill gas can be upgraded to natural gas—landfill gas utilization—which is a potential revenue stream.[3]
Landfills have the potential to cause a number of issues. Infrastructure
disruption, such as damage to access roads by heavy vehicles, may
occur. Pollution of local roads and water courses from wheels on
vehicles when they leave the landfill can be significant and can be
mitigated by wheel washing systems. Pollution of the local environment, such as contamination of groundwater or aquifers or soil contamination
may occur, as well. Extensive efforts are made to capture and treat
leachate from landfills before it reaches groundwater aquifers, but
engineered liners always have a lifespan, though it may be 100 years or
more. Eventually, every landfill liner will leak,[4] allowing the leachate to contaminate the groundwater.
Methane is naturally generated by decaying organic wastes in a landfill. It is a potent greenhouse gas,
and can itself be a danger because it is flammable and potentially
explosive. In properly managed landfills, gas is collected and utilized.
This could range from simple flaring to landfill gas utilization.
Poorly run landfills may become nuisances because of vectors such as rats and flies which can cause infectious diseases. The occurrence of such vectors can be mitigated through the use of daily cover.
Other potential issues include wildlife disruption, dust, odor, noise pollution, and reduced local property values.
Gases are produced in landfills due to the anaerobic digestion by microbes. In a properly managed landfill this gas is collected and used. Its uses range from simple flaring to the landfill gas utilization and generation of electricity.
Landfill gas monitoring alerts workers to the presence of a build-up of
gases to a harmful level. In some countries, landfill gas recovery is
extensive; in the United States, for example, more than 850 landfills
have active landfill gas recovery systems.[5]
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A charcoal and ochre cave painting of Megaloceros from Lascaux, France
In 2001 and 2004, South African archeologists reported finds in Blombos Cave of a 100,000-year-old human-made ochre-based mixture that could have been used like paint.[1][2] Further excavation in the same cave resulted in the 2011 report of a complete toolkit for grinding pigments and making a primitive paint-like substance.[2][3] Cave paintings drawn with red or yellow ochre, hematite, manganese oxide, and charcoal may have been made by early Homo sapiens as long as 40,000 years ago.
A piece of Giant clam shell used to hold ochre paint in pre-dynastic ancient Egypt
Ancient colored walls at Dendera, Egypt, which were exposed for years to the elements, still possess their brilliant color, as vivid as when they were painted about 2,000 years ago. The Egyptians mixed their colors with a gummy substance, and applied them separately from each other without any blending or mixture. They appear to have used six colors: white, black, blue, red, yellow, and green. They first covered the area entirely with white, then traced the design in black, leaving out the lights of the ground color. They used minium for red, and generally of a dark tinge.
Pliny mentions some painted ceilings in his day in the town of Ardea, which had been done prior to the foundation of Rome. He expresses great surprise and admiration at their freshness, after the lapse of so many centuries.
Paint was made with the yolk of eggs and therefore, the substance would harden and adhere to the surface it was applied to. Pigment was made from plants, sand, and different soils. Most paints used either oil or water as a base (the diluent, solvent or vehicle for the pigment).
A still extant example of 17th-century house oil painting is Ham House in Surrey, England, where a primer was used along with several undercoats and an elaborate decorative overcoat; the pigment and oil mixture would have been ground into a paste with a mortar and pestle. The process was done by hand by the painters and exposed them to lead poisoning due to the white-lead powder.
In 1718, Marshall Smith invented a "Machine or Engine for the Grinding of Colours" in England. It is not known precisely how it operated, but it was a device that increased the efficiency of pigment grinding dramatically. Soon, a company called Emerton and Manby was advertising exceptionally low-priced paints that had been ground with labour-saving technology:
One Pound of Colour ground in a Horse-Mill will paint twelve Yards of Work, whereas Colour ground any other Way, will not do half that Quantity.
By the proper onset of the Industrial Revolution, paint was being ground in steam-powered mills and an alternative to lead-based pigments was found in a white derivative of zinc oxide. Interior house painting increasingly became the norm as the 19th century progressed, both for decorative reasons and because the paint was effective in preventing the walls rotting from damp. Linseed oil was also increasingly used as an inexpensive binder.
In 1866, Sherwin-Williams in the United States opened as a large paint-maker and invented a paint that could be used from the tin without preparation.
It was not until the stimulus of World War II created a shortage of linseed oil in the supply market that artificial resins, or alkyds, were invented. Cheap and easy to make, they also held the color well and lasted for a long time.[4][not in citation given][citation needed]
Components
Vehicle
The vehicle is composed of the binder; or, if it is necessary to thin the binder with a diluent like solvent or water, it is the combination of binder + diluent.[5][6] In this case, once the paint has dried or cured very nearly all of the diluent has evaporated and only the binder is left on the coated surface. Thus, an important quantity in coatings formulation is the "vehicle solids", sometimes called the "resin solids" of the formula. This is the proportion of the wet coating weight that is binder, i.e. the polymer backbone of the film that will remain after drying or curing is complete.
Binder or film former
The binder is the film-forming component of paint.[7] It is the only component that is always present among all the various types of formulations. Many binders are too thick to be applied and must be thinned. The type of thinner, if present, varies with the binder.
The binder imparts properties such as gloss, durability, flexibility, and toughness.
Binders include synthetic or natural resins such as alkyds, acrylics, vinyl-acrylics, vinyl acetate/ethylene (VAE), polyurethanes, polyesters, melamine resins, epoxy, silanes or siloxanes or oils.
Binders can be categorized according to the mechanisms for film formation. Thermoplastic mechanisms include drying and coalescence. Drying refers to simple evaporation of the solvent or thinner to leave a coherent film behind. Coalescence refers to a mechanism that involves drying followed by actual interpenetration and fusion of formerly discrete particles. Thermoplastic film-forming mechanisms are sometimes described as "thermoplastic cure" but that is a misnomer because no chemical curing reactions are required to knit the film. Thermosetting mechanisms, on the other hand, are true curing mechanism that involve chemical reaction(s) among the polymers that make up the binder.[8]
Thermoplastic mechanisms: Some films are formed by simple cooling of the binder. For example, encaustic or wax paints are liquid when warm, and harden upon cooling. In many cases, they resoften or liquify if reheated.
Paints that dry by solvent evaporation and contain the solid binder dissolved in a solvent are known as lacquers. A solid film forms when the solvent evaporates. Because no chemical crosslinking is involved, the film can re-dissolve in solvent; as such, lacquers are unsuitable for applications where chemical resistance is important. Classic nitrocellulose lacquers fall into this category, as do non-grain raising stains composed of dyes dissolved in solvent. Performance varies by formulation, but lacquers generally tend to have better UV resistance and lower corrosion resistance than comparable systems that cure by polymerization or coalescence.
The paint type known as Emulsion in the UK and Latex in the USA is a water-borne dispersion of sub-micrometer polymer particles. These terms in their respective countries cover all paints that use synthetic polymers such as acrylic, vinyl acrylic (PVA), styrene acrylic, etc. as binders.[9] The term "latex" in the context of paint in the USA simply means an aqueous dispersion; latex rubber from the rubber tree is not an ingredient. These dispersions are prepared by emulsion polymerization. Such paints cure by a process called coalescence where first the water, and then the trace, or coalescing, solvent, evaporate and draw together and soften the binder particles and fuse them together into irreversibly bound networked structures, so that the paint cannot redissolve in the solvent/water that originally carried it. The residual surfactants in paint, as well as hydrolytic effects with some polymers cause the paint to remain susceptible to softening and, over time, degradation by water. The general term of latex paint is usually used in the USA, while the term emulsion paint is used for the same products in the UK and the term latex paint is not used at all.
The "drying oils", counter-intuitively, actually cure by a crosslinking reaction even if they are not put through an oven cycle and seem to simply dry in air. The film formation mechanism of the simplest examples involve first evaporation of solvents followed by reaction with oxygen from the environment over a period of days, weeks and even months to create a crosslinked network.[5] Classic alkyd enamels would fall into this category. Oxidative cure coatings are catalyzed by metal complex driers such as cobalt naphthenate.
Recent environmental requirements restrict the use of volatile organic compounds (VOCs), and alternative means of curing have been developed, generally for industrial purposes. UV curing paints, for example, enable formulation with very low amounts of solvent, or even none at all. This can be achieved because of the monomers and oligomers used in the coating have relatively very low molecular weight, and are therefore low enough in viscosity to enable good fluid flow without the need for additional thinner. If solvent is present in significant amounts, generally it is mostly evaporated first and then crosslinking is initiated by ultraviolet light. Similarly, powder coatings contain little or no solvent. Flow and cure are produced by heating of the substrate after electrostatic application of the dry powder.[11]
Combination mechanisms: So-called "catalyzed" lacquers" or "crosslinking latex" coatings are designed to form films by a combination of methods: classic drying plus a curing reaction that benefits from the catalyst. There are paints called plastisols/organosols, which are made by blending PVC granules with a plasticiser. These are stoved and the mix coalesces.
Diluent or solvent or thinner
The main purposes of the diluent are to dissolve the polymer and adjust the viscosity of the paint. It is volatile and does not become part of the paint film. It also controls flow and application properties, and in some cases can affect the stability of the paint while in liquid state. Its main function is as the carrier for the non volatile components. To spread heavier oils (for example, linseed) as in oil-based interior house paint, a thinner oil is required. These volatile substances impart their properties temporarily—once the solvent has evaporated, the remaining paint is fixed to the surface.
This component is optional: some paints have no diluent.
Water is the main diluent for water-borne paints, even the co-solvent types.
Solvent-borne, also called oil-based, paints can have various combinations of organic solvents as the diluent, including aliphatics, aromatics, alcohols, ketones and white spirit. Specific examples are organic solvents such as petroleum distillate, esters, glycol ethers, and the like. Sometimes volatile low-molecular weight synthetic resins also serve as diluents.
Pigment and filler
Main article: Pigment
Pigments are granular solids incorporated in the paint to contribute color. Fillers are granular solids incorporate to impart toughness, texture, give the paint special properties, or to reduce the cost of the paint. Alternatively, some paints contain dyes instead of or in combination with pigments.
Pigments can be classified as either natural or synthetic. Natural pigments include various clays, calcium carbonate, mica, silicas, and talcs. Synthetics would include engineered molecules, calcined clays, blanc fixe, precipitated calcium carbonate, and synthetic pyrogenic silicas.
Hiding pigments, in making paint opaque, also protect the substrate from the harmful effects of ultraviolet light. Hiding pigments include titanium dioxide, phthalo blue, red iron oxide, and many others.
Fillers are a special type of pigment that serve to thicken the film, support its structure and increase the volume of the paint. Fillers are usually cheap and inert materials, such as diatomaceous earth, talc, lime, barytes, clay, etc. Floor paints that must resist abrasion may contain fine quartz sand as a filler. Not all paints include fillers. On the other hand, some paints contain large proportions of pigment/filler and binder.
Some pigments are toxic, such as the lead pigments that are used in lead paint. Paint manufacturers began replacing white lead pigments with titanium white (titanium dioxide), before lead was banned in paint for residential use in 1978 by the US Consumer Product Safety Commission. The titanium dioxide used in most paints today is often coated with silica/alumina/zirconium for various reasons, such as better exterior durability, or better hiding performance (opacity) promoted by more optimal spacing within the paint film.[12]
Micaceous Iron Oxide (MIO) is another alternative to lead for protection of steel, giving more protection against water and light damage than most paints. When MIO pigments are ground into fine particles, most cleave into shiny layers, which reflect light, thus minimising UV degradation and protecting the resin binder. Most pigments used in paint tend to be spherical, but lamellar pigments, such as glass flake and MIO have overlapping plates, which impede the path of water molecules.[13] For optimum performance MIO should have a high content of thin flake-like particles resembling mica. ISO 10601 sets two levels of MIO content.[14] MIO is often derived from a form of hematite.
Additives
Besides the three main categories of ingredients, paint can have a wide variety of miscellaneous additives, which are usually added in small amounts, yet provide a significant effect on the product. Some examples include additives to modify surface tension, improve flow properties, improve the finished appearance, increase wet edge, improve pigment stability, impart antifreeze properties, control foaming, control skinning, etc. Other types of additives include catalysts, thickeners, stabilizers, emulsifiers, texturizers, adhesion promoters, UV stabilizers, flatteners (de-glossing agents), biocides to fight bacterial growth, and the like.
Additives normally do not significantly alter the percentages of individual components in a formulation.[15]
Clefable (F) @ Choice Specs
Ability: Unaware
EVs: 128 Def / 252 SpA / 128 SpD
Modest Nature
- Metronome
-
Togekiss (F) @ Choice Specs
Ability: Super Luck
EVs: 248 HP / 8 Def / 252 SpD
Calm Nature
- Metronome
- Metronome
- Metronome
- Metronome
Machamp (M) @ Choice Band
Ability: No Guard
EVs: 252 Atk / 128 Def / 128 SpD
Adamant Nature
- Metronome
-
Spinda (M) @ Choice Band
Ability: Tangled Feet
EVs: 252 Atk / 252 Spe
Adamant Nature
- Metronome
-
Plusle (M) @ Choice Specs
Ability: Plus
EVs: 252 SpA / 252 Spe
Modest Nature
- Metronome
-
Minun (M) @ Choice Specs
Ability: Minus
EVs: 252 SpA / 252 Spe
Modest Nature
- Metronome
-
=== [monotype] Spooky ===
Shell of a hero (Shedinja) @ Focus Sash
Ability: Wonder Guard
EVs: 252 Atk / 4 Def / 252 Spe
Jolly Nature
- Swords Dance
- Shadow Claw
- X-Scissor
- Sucker Punch
I eat pussy (Gengar) (M) @ Life Orb
Ability: Levitate
EVs: 252 SpA / 4 SpD / 252 Spe
Timid Nature
IVs: 0 Atk
- Shadow Ball
- Dark Pulse
- Sludge Bomb
- Psychic
Bayanetta (Banette-Mega) (M) @ Banettite
Ability: Prankster
Shiny: Yes
EVs: 248 HP / 252 Atk / 8 SpD
Adamant Nature
- Shadow Sneak
- Foul Play
- Shadow Claw
- Thunder Wave
I eat ass (Spiritomb) (M) @ Assault Vest
Ability: Pressure
Shiny: Yes
EVs: 248 HP / 252 Atk / 8 SpD
Adamant Nature
- Shadow Sneak
- Foul Play
- Pursuit
- Sucker Punch
I'm gay (Chandelure) (M) @ Sitrus Berry
Ability: Flash Fire
EVs: 248 HP / 252 SpA / 8 SpD
Modest Nature
IVs: 0 Atk
- Flamethrower
- Shadow Ball
- Dark Pulse
- Energy Ball
Evolite nigga (Doublade) (M) @ Eviolite
Ability: No Guard
Shiny: Yes
EVs: 248 HP / 252 Atk / 8 SpD
Adamant Nature
- Sacred Sword
- Shadow Claw
- Swords Dance
- Shadow Sneak
=== [lc] babies ===
Gible (M) @ Rocky Helmet
Ability: Rough Skin
Level: 5
EVs: 52 HP / 196 Atk / 236 SpD / 20 Spe
Adamant Nature
- Dragon Claw
- Earthquake
- Iron Head
- Return
Slowpoke (M) @ Leftovers
Ability: Regenerator
Level: 5
Shiny: Yes
EVs: 236 Def / 36 SpA / 196 SpD
Bold Nature
IVs: 0 Atk
- Scald
- Psychic
- Calm Mind
- Slack Off
Woobat (M) @ Leftovers
Ability: Simple
Level: 5
EVs: 236 SpA / 92 SpD / 180 Spe
Timid Nature
IVs: 0 Atk
- Stored Power
- Air Slash
- Substitute
- Calm Mind
Abra (M) @ Focus Sash
Ability: Magic Guard
Level: 5
EVs: 236 SpA / 76 SpD / 196 Spe
Timid Nature
IVs: 0 Atk
- Psychic
- Dazzling Gleam
- Shadow Ball
- Toxic
Shroomish (M) @ Toxic Orb
Ability: Poison Heal
Level: 5
EVs: 36 HP / 196 Atk / 36 Def / 196 SpD
Adamant Nature
- Drain Punch
- Body Slam
- Seed Bomb
- Return
Shellder (M) @ White Herb
Ability: Skill Link
Level: 5
Shiny: Yes
EVs: 236 Atk / 76 SpD / 196 Spe
Adamant Nature
- Shell Smash
- Icicle Spear
- Rock Blast
- Razor Shell
=== [cap] Untitled 22 ===
Cyclohm (M) @ Expert Belt
Ability: Shield Dust
EVs: 248 HP / 252 SpA / 8 SpD
Modest Nature
IVs: 0 Atk
- Fire Blast
- Thunderbolt
- Blizzard
- Dragon Pulse
Aurumoth (M) @ Leftovers
Ability: No Guard
Shiny: Yes
EVs: 248 HP / 8 Atk / 252 SpD
Sassy Nature
- Focus Blast
- Megahorn
- Thunder
- Will-O-Wisp
Crucibelle (F) @ Crucibellite
Ability: Regenerator
Shiny: Yes
EVs: 248 HP / 252 Atk / 8 SpD
Adamant Nature
- Gunk Shot
- Rock Slide
- Stealth Rock
- Low Kick
Kitsunoh (M) @ Sitrus Berry
Ability: Frisk
EVs: 252 Atk / 4 SpD / 252 Spe
Jolly Nature
- Iron Head
- Knock Off
- Shadow Strike
- Defog
Colossoil (M) @ Assault Vest
Ability: Rebound
Shiny: Yes
EVs: 248 HP / 252 Atk / 8 SpD
Adamant Nature
- Crunch
- Earthquake
- Superpower
- U-turn
Volkraken (M) @ Leftovers
Ability: Infiltrator
Shiny: Yes
EVs: 248 HP / 252 Def / 8 SpA
Bold Nature
IVs: 0 Atk
- Flamethrower
- Toxic
- Scald
- Flash Cannon
=== [gen1ou] Genwunner ===
Missingno.
-
Gengar
Ability: Levitate
EVs: 252 HP / 252 Atk / 252 Def / 252 SpA / 252 Spe
Bashful Nature
- Night Shade
- Thunderbolt
- Psychic
- Toxic
Jolteon
Ability: Volt Absorb
EVs: 252 HP / 252 Atk / 252 Def / 252 SpA / 252 Spe
Bashful Nature
- Thunderbolt
- Thunder Wave
- Toxic
- Reflect
Snorlax
Ability: Immunity
EVs: 252 HP / 252 Atk / 252 Def / 252 SpA / 252 Spe
Bashful Nature
- Body Slam
- Earthquake
- Rock Slide
- Self-Destruct
Starmie
Ability: Illuminate
EVs: 252 HP / 252 Atk / 252 Def / 252 SpA / 252 Spe
Bashful Nature
- Hydro Pump
- Blizzard
- Psychic
- Light Screen
Arcanine
Ability: Intimidate
EVs: 252 HP / 252 Atk / 252 Def / 252 SpA / 252 Spe
Bashful Nature
- Fire Blast
- Body Slam
- Reflect
- Substitute
MEXICO CITY — Leonel Mendoza fishes every day in a reservoir
surrounded by forest and mountains in the southern Mexico state of
Chiapas. But in recent days, he also has been ferrying curious
passengers out to see the remains of a colonial-era church that has
emerged from the receding waters.
A drought this year has hit the watershed of the Grijalva river,
dropping the water level in the Nezahualcoyotl reservoir by 82 feet.
It is the second time a drop in the reservoir has revealed the church
since it was flooded when the dam was completed in 1966. In 2002, the
water was so low visitors could walk inside the church.
“The people celebrated. They came to eat, to hang out, to do
business. I sold them fried fish. They did processions around the
church,” Mendoza said.
The church in the Quechula locality was built by a group of monks headed by Friar Bartolome de la Casas, who arrived in the region inhabited by the Zoque people in the mid-16th century.
The church is 183 feet long and 42 feet wide, with walls rising 30 feet. The bell tower reaches 48 feet above the ground.
“The church was abandoned due the big plagues of 1773-1776,” said architect Carlos Navarete, who worked with Mexican authorities on a report about the structure.
It depended on the nearby monastery of Tecpatan, founded in 1564.
Navarrete believes that based on architectural similarities, it is the
work of the same builder at very nearly the same time. Its importance
was derived from its location on the King’s Highway, a road designed by
Spanish conquistadors and still in use until the 20th century.
“At that time we still found the wood from the chorus loft and the
roof beams,” he said. “Also a large ossuary of the victims of the plague
that depopulated the area.”
“It was a church built thinking that this could be a great population
center, but it never achieved that,” Navarrete said. “It probably never
even had a dedicated priest, only receiving visits from those from
Tecpatan.”